EU Drug Market: MDMA — In-depth analysis
EU Drug Market: MDMA describes the European MDMA market from production to trafficking, distribution and use. It details the materials, processes and players involved at different stages and levels of the market. The module takes a threat assessment approach, identifying key issues and defining recommendations for action at EU and Member State level.
This resource is a module of EU Drug Markets: In-depth analysis, the fourth comprehensive overview of illicit drug markets in the European Union by the EUDA and Europol.
Last update: March 2025
Table of contents
Introduction
MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine) is an illicit drug of synthetic origin, which is typically present in the EU drug market as tablets or in powder or crystal form. When in tablet form, it is commonly referred to as ecstasy (X, XTC, molly, mandy, md), although several substances can be found in tablets sold as ecstasy. Initially developed by the pharmaceutical company Merck in 1912, the substance garnered interest throughout the 1970’s in some therapeutic circles, and more widespread attention in the 1980s and 1990s due to its association with the dance and rave culture. The European MDMA market is largely supplied by illicit laboratories in the region, particularly in the Netherlands and Belgium, where production has frequently adapted to face market pressures, such as precursor shortages. Despite being smaller in overall value compared to other stimulants, the MDMA market remains profitable, with an estimated annual retail value of EUR 594 million in Europe.
Key findings and threat assessment
The European MDMA market represents a significant and profitable market for criminal networks, with a minimum estimated annual retail value of at least EUR 594 million, corresponding to about 72.4 million ecstasy tablets used. Despite overall price stability, variations exist across Member States, particularly near the production hubs in the Netherlands and Belgium. Notably, while the MDMA content in ecstasy tablets remains high by historical standards, there are signals of a decrease from a peak in previous years. Nevertheless, significant health concerns remain due to the presence of high-strength ecstasy tablets on the market. MDMA production predominantly occurs in the Netherlands and Belgium, with Dutch criminal networks playing a significant role in the MDMA market both within and outside the European Union.
Europe’s MDMA market has a global reach, supplying Oceania, Asia and also Latin America. Innovations in production and trafficking methods, alongside the exploitation of legal business structures, point to a sophisticated and adaptive criminal infrastructure. The environmental damage and health risks associated with MDMA production underscore the market’s broader societal impacts. The trafficking of MDMA base oil and the potential for international market expansion pose new challenges. Innovations in precursor use and production techniques could, in future, further complicate efforts to control this market.
Global context
An estimated 20 million people used MDMA worldwide in the past year, according to 2022 estimates. Globally, around 12 tonnes of MDMA was seized in 2022, a 15 % increase on the previous year, which suggests that the drop in seizures seen in 2021 associated with the COVID-19 pandemic was temporary. Europe accounted for over two fifths (43 %) of the global quantity of MDMA seized between 2018 and 2022, and typically accounts for approximately half of the world’s dismantled illicit MDMA laboratories. However, MDMA is also produced in Oceania, Asia, North America and, more recently, Latin America. The largest consumer market is situated in East and South-East Asia, although Oceania has by far the highest prevalence rate of MDMA use globally.
MDMA production
Countries in the European Union play a prominent role in the global supply of MDMA. Most EU-based MDMA production takes place in the Netherlands and Belgium but there are signs that production may be spreading to other countries. MDMA production currently occurs mostly via the ‘high-pressure’ method, a reductive amination reaction that uses PMK as the precursor. Some signals suggest that a shortage of high-pressure reactors attributed to the arrest of equipment manufacturers (critical facilitators) in the Netherlands may be driving a shift towards MDMA production by other methods, such as the ‘cold method’ and the purchase of equipment made in China. Analogous to the situation with BMK for amphetamine and methamphetamine production, PMK has also been supplanted by designer precursors, mostly sourced from China, which are then converted into PMK in Europe. Production facilities tend to be industrial operations, using sophisticated equipment operated by experienced ‘cooks’. Between 2019 and 2021, fewer MDMA production facilities were dismantled than in the previous period, likely reflecting reduced demand for MDMA during the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as changes in law enforcement activities. However, this temporary market disruption appears to be over, with several large illicit production facilities being dismantled in 2022 and 2023. The same trend is reflected in seizures of MDMA precursors.
MDMA trafficking and distribution
Demand for MDMA in Europe is met by large-scale producers in the European Union, mainly in the Netherlands and Belgium. Limited seizure data suggest that the impact of COVID-19 on the availability of MDMA at retail level may have been transitory, although the quantity of MDMA seized still remains lower than before the pandemic. From Europe, MDMA is trafficked to consumer markets globally. Based on available data, the Netherlands remains the main origin of ecstasy trafficking worldwide. However, Germany ‒ and to a lesser extent Bulgaria and Belgium ‒ appears to be emerging as a distribution hub for MDMA to both European and external markets.
Profitable markets in Oceania and Asia appear to be some of the main targets of European-origin MDMA, but there is evidence to suggest that Latin America may also be emerging as an increasingly important market. In some instances, there have been reports of barter deals, where MDMA has been traded for cocaine, between European and Latin American criminal networks.
MDMA is typically transported by land within the European Union and to Türkiye, and by cargo or passenger airplanes, and maritime shipping, for destinations outside Europe. Post and parcel delivery services are also key distribution channels for MDMA, particularly from vendors operating online. Shipments using post and parcel delivery mostly consist of smaller quantities, although larger quantities have also been reported.
MDMA is frequently traded online across a range of platforms, including darknet markets as well as surface web and social media platforms. Darknet markets offer retail and wholesale amounts of both ecstasy tablets and MDMA powders/crystals. Recently, social media platforms and instant messaging applications have become particularly dynamic channels through which MDMA is sold to consumers.
MDMA retail market
Around 12.3 million adults in the European Union (aged 15-64) have used MDMA at least once in their lifetime. A demand-based estimate of the European MDMA retail market places its minimum annual value at EUR 594 million, corresponding to approximately 72.4 million MDMA tablets consumed in 2021. Around 90 % of this consumption can be attributed to frequent users. European consumers have access to a diverse set of MDMA products, mainly ecstasy tablets and MDMA powders/crystals. However, some novel consumer products are also becoming available on European markets, such as edibles and sweets containing MDMA. Although patterns of consumption have remained relatively stable, consumers of ecstasy tablets are expected to ingest more of the substance per use episode, given the increase in MDMA content per tablet between 2011 and 2019. Since 2019, however, MDMA tablet content has slightly decreased – in part, this may reflect a temporary reduction in MDMA demand during the COVID-19 pandemic and reduced availability of MDMA associated with legal controls placed on glycidic derivatives of PMK, some of its key (pre) precursors. Nevertheless, high-strength ecstasy tablets are still in circulation, as are mixtures of MDMA and ketamine sold as ‘tucibi’ or ‘pink cocaine’. Serious harms associated with exposure to MDMA are considered relatively rare, but MDMA acute toxicity is known, and the availability of high-strength products increases the risk of adverse health effects, including fatal outcomes, associated with the use of this substance.
Actions to address current threats and increase preparedness
The large-scale production and distribution of MDMA within the European Union requires a strategic response framework to address the health and security challenges posed by this drug market. Key priorities include enhancing the intelligence picture on MDMA trafficking, both within Europe and to external markets, and reducing MDMA production and distribution. This will require improved monitoring, information sharing and enhanced control of the importation and flow of precursors and other chemicals used in MDMA production. Cross-border investigations also need strengthening to encompass the entire MDMA production chain, targeting the infrastructure supporting MDMA production, and utilising innovative technologies for detecting and dismantling production sites and distribution networks online and offline. To do so, enhanced collaboration between EU Member States, international partners and other key stakeholders is necessary, focusing on operational and strategic information exchange. Meanwhile, strengthened training and awareness among law enforcement and other key stakeholders will be important in order to enhance the intelligence picture of the MDMA market. In addition, enhancing available prevention, harm reduction, and treatment programmes will be necessary to reduce the harmful impacts of the MDMA market to public health.
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List of figures and information boxes
A list of all figures and information boxes in the report is available.
Source data
Links to all source data tables used in the report to create data visualisations may be found at the bottom of each chapter, as well as, in most cases, beneath each graphic. The entire source data set for the report, including data for tables which appear within the report, may be found using the link below. All data is is fully compatible with the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) licence.
Complete set of source data tables for the EU Drug Market: MDMA
Methodology and references
© EUDA, Europol, 2025
For further information on copyright and reuse, please see our legal notice.
Methodology: Read more about the methodology used to collect data in this analysis.
References: Consult the list of references used in this module.
Abbreviations: Consult the list of acronyms and other abbreviations used in EU Drug Markets: In-depth analysis.
Photo credits: Introduction: Netherlands Forensic Institute; Production, Retail markets, Trafficking and distribution: Rita Jorge; remaining photos: istockphoto.com.
Recommended citation: European Union Drugs Agency and Europol (2025), EU Drug Market: MDMA — In-depth analysis, https://www.euda.europa.eu/publications/eu-drug-markets/mdma_en
Identifiers
HTML: TD-01-24-000-EN-Q
ISBN: 978-92-9408-030-1
DOI: 10.2810/9164617