EU Drug Market: MDMA — Trafficking and distribution. Europe as a global supplier of MDMA
This resource is part of EU Drug Market: MDMA — In-depth analysis by the EUDA and Europol.
Number of MDMA seizures: will the impact of COVID-19 last?
The number of seizures of MDMA may be viewed as an indicator of the availability of MDMA at retail level. This is because, in aggregated datasets, the number of seizures tends to reflect seizures made by law enforcement at retail level, which typically occur more frequently (albeit in smaller quantities). Although these data need to be interpreted with caution, given that they are influenced by a number of factors including law enforcement priorities, in combination with other data sources they are useful for observing trends on the consumer market.
Between 2011 and 2019, the total number of MDMA seizures reported in the European Union, Norway and Türkiye increased steadily, reaching a historical peak of close to 30 000 seizures in 2019 (see Figure 5.1 Number of seizures of MDMA in the European Union, Norway and Türkiye, 2011-2022). Subsequently, seizures started to decline, reaching just under 15 500 in 2021, likely linked to reduced MDMA demand and availability during the COVID-19 pandemic. The available data suggest that this drop may have been short-lived, since by 2022 close to 19 600 MDMA seizures were reported – an increase of 27 % compared to 2021. It will be important to observe how these values evolve in future since the data do not include all countries. It should be noted that Germany, France and the Netherlands have not reported on the number of MDMA seizures since 2019 (and in some cases even further back), which may affect the interpretation of these data.
In 2022, the largest number of seizures was reported by Spain (6 390 seizures, 33 % of the total reported in the European Union, Norway and Türkiye), followed by Türkiye (4 519 seizures, 23 %), Poland and Sweden (1 438 and 1 380 seizures respectively, each representing roughly 7 % of all seizures reported in the European Union, Norway and Türkiye).
Source: EUDA. See Methodology.
Quantity of MDMA seized: Türkiye remains the largest market
The quantity of MDMA seized tends to reflect large seizures made by law enforcement, especially by customs and border control agencies. This means that a small number of events where large quantities of MDMA were seized will constitute a larger proportion of the total quantities seized in Europe. For this reason, the quantity of MDMA seized may be viewed as an indicator of wholesale drug markets. As already mentioned, these data are influenced by several factors and should be interpreted with caution. Notably, not all countries report the quantity of MDMA seized, which may significantly affect the interpretation of trends.
The quantity of MDMA seized in the European Union, Norway and Türkiye has remained at a relatively low level since 2019 (see Figure 5.2 Quantity of MDMA seized in the European Union, Norway and Türkiye, 2011-2022). In the European Union, peak quantities were seized between 2016 and 2019, averaging at 3.3 tonnes per year. The Netherlands reported the majority of those seizures (averaging 1 tonne per year) followed by France (366 kilograms), Belgium (298 kilograms) and Spain (244 kilograms). These values include seizures of powders and tablets (converted into mass) (see Methodology). During that period, Türkiye alone seized 1.8 tonnes of MDMA on average per year, more than half of the total quantity of MDMA seized by the EU Member States in the period between 2016 and 2019.
From 2020 onwards, the decrease in the quantity of MDMA seized appears to reflect the reduced demand and availability of MDMA associated with the closing of recreational settings during the COVID-19 pandemic. Between 2020 and 2022, 2.4 tonnes of MDMA were seized on average per year in the European Union. Spain reported average seizures of 545 kilograms per year, followed by the Netherlands (380 kilograms per year), France (352 kilograms) and Belgium (258 kilograms). While seizures decreased in the European Union, Türkiye continued seizing large quantities of MDMA between 2020 and 2022, amounting to approximately 2.0 tonnes per year. This, together with the large number of individual seizures reported by Türkiye (see above), likely indicates that a large consumer market for MDMA exists in Türkiye and perhaps also that the country is a transit area for MDMA destined for other non-EU markets.
Source: EUDA. See Methodology.
MDMA trafficking: the role of the European Union as a global distribution hub
Given its central role in MDMA production globally, the European Union also serves as a hub for the trafficking of MDMA to non-EU countries. Information from 83 countries reporting to the UNODC between 2017 and 2021 on MDMA trafficking shows that the European Union, especially the Netherlands, remains the main origin of ecstasy trafficking flows worldwide (UNODC, 2023). European countries were mentioned as the origin of ecstasy seizures in 82 % of all reports, followed by Asia (8 %), the Americas (8 %) and Africa (3 %). Of all EU countries, the Netherlands was by far the most frequently cited origin (34 %).
Information reported to the World Customs Organization (WCO) also supports this finding (1). In the period between 2019 and 2022, at least 95 non-EU countries reported seizures of MDMA originating (2) in the European Union. The Netherlands was the country from which the largest quantities of MDMA were shipped (2.8 tonnes and 24 litres in 2 163 individual seizures), followed by Germany (1.4 tonnes and 12 litres in 809 seizures), Bulgaria (1.3 tonnes in 11 seizures) and Belgium (1.3 tonnes and 40 litres in 438 seizures) (see Figure 5.3. Top 10 EU countries of departure for global MDMA seizures (by quantity) 2019-2022).
Source: CEN database of the World Customs Organisation (WCO). Provided by WCO RILO-WE (Regional Intelligence Liaison Office Western Europe). See Methodology.
Based on the available data, Germany and Bulgaria appear to be emerging as distribution hubs for MDMA to both European and external markets. In the case of Germany, this is likely due to its proximity to the main production hubs overseen by Dutch criminal networks, who may also travel there to submit parcels to postal services, as well as the presence of large air hubs for major international courier, package delivery, and express mail services in the country. The available information shows that MDMA trafficking from the Netherlands to Germany occurs mainly through drug couriers, who also supply the local consumer market. In addition, this may be an indication that drug producers in the Netherlands and Belgium are relocating the distribution to Germany, potentially in response to interdiction by law enforcement. With regard to Bulgaria, its proximity to Türkiye, where there is a large MDMA market, is likely to be a contributing factor to its emergence as a distribution hub.
An assessment by the Dutch Police indicates that the majority of the MDMA produced in the Netherlands is intended for more profitable overseas markets, where MDMA prices appear to be much higher than in the European Union, for example, in Oceania and Asia (NPNL, 2022). In addition to Oceania and Asia, important destination markets for MDMA produced in the European Union include the United Kingdom, Türkiye, the Americas and Africa.
Seizure data reported to the WCO also underscore Türkiye’s importance as a destination for MDMA shipments originating from the European Union. Between 2019 and 2022, at least 2.8 tonnes of MDMA was shipped from the European Union to Türkiye (of which 1.3 tonnes was shipped from Bulgaria, 455 kilograms from the Netherlands and 316 kilograms from Poland). WCO data also confirm that large quantities of MDMA were trafficked from EU countries to destinations in Oceania (Australia, New Zealand), North America (the United States), South-East Asia (Thailand, Vietnam), Latin America (Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Peru), the Middle-East (Israel) and East Asia (Japan) (see Figure 5.4. Quantity of EU-origin MDMA seized in non-EU countries, 2019-2022).
Source: CEN database of the World Customs Organisation (WCO). Provided by WCO RILO-WE (Regional Intelligence Liaison Office Western Europe). See Methodology.
Information from the WCO also suggests that, occasionally, EU countries may serve as transhipment points between non-EU countries. Between 2019 and 2022, the available data show that at least 286 kilograms of MDMA seized in EU countries had originated from and was destined to countries outside the European Union (although it is not clear where the seized MDMA had been produced). A number of countries were involved in those shipments, with Belgium being the country where most seizures occurred, followed by Germany. For example, four shipments amounting to 26 kilograms were seized in Belgium in 2021. These were sent by postal services from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and were headed to Australia and New Zealand. An unusual seizure also occurred in 2021, when Germany appeared to have been the transhipment point of 5.5 litres of MDMA base oil that was sent by mail or express courier services from Brazil to Lebanon. This clearly suggests that MDMA oil is exported from Europe for processing into MDMA hydrochloride close to consumer markets (see Section Trafficking of European MDMA base oil: an emerging trend?)
Substantial intra-regional trafficking flows also occur within Europe, mainly from production hubs to consumer markets in other European countries (UNODC, 2023).
MDMA trafficked from the European Union to Latin America: the reverse cocaine route?
There are well-established drug trafficking routes between Latin American and European countries, particularly for cocaine (see EU Drug Market: Cocaine). Recent indications suggest that these routes may also be used to traffic MDMA in the opposite direction.
Seizure data reported to WCO show that between 2019 and 2022, at least 1.2 tonnes of MDMA were trafficked from EU countries to Latin America. Destination countries for EU shipments included Chile (372 kilograms), Peru (160 kilograms), Brazil (141 kilograms), Colombia (136 kilograms), and Argentina (117 kilograms). Several attempts to smuggle MDMA from Europe to Latin America have been documented. For example, in June 2022, law enforcement authorities in the Netherlands and Chile dismantled a criminal network attempting to traffic nearly 500 000 MDMA tablets and over 100 kilograms of MDMA powder from the Netherlands and Belgium to ports in Chile. The investigation found that the criminal network concealed large numbers of MDMA tablets in caches within mobile home units and vehicles as well as in compressors (Shuldiner, 2022). In December 2022, an international operation led by the Spanish Police resulted in the seizure of 56 kilograms of MDMA in a boat headed to Argentina from Cadiz, via the Canary Islands. The boat had previously been used to transport 1.5 tonnes of cocaine and had been refurbished and renamed by the criminals to avoid attracting the authorities’ attention. The crystal MDMA seized in this case was reportedly destined to be used to make MDMA tablets in Argentina (Policía Nacional España, 2022). In addition, large seizures of ‘tucibi’ (a mixture often containing ketamine, MDMA or other substances) have also occurred in Spain, destined for Colombia (see Box What is tucibi?).
The smuggling of MDMA to Latin American countries presents an important opportunity for MDMA producers in Europe, given the price of synthetic drugs in the region and the large potential market. Recent years have seen an increase in demand for synthetic drugs, including MDMA, in Latin American countries (UNODC, 2022, 2023). So far MDMA has been trafficked from Europe (typically Belgium, the Netherlands and, to a lesser extent, Germany) to the region using postal services and couriers on commercial flights (Ford, 2021b, a; UNODC, 2021). The increasing demand for MDMA and the possibility of high profits may motivate criminals based in the European Union to use established drug routes between Latin America and Europe, previously thought to be ‘one-way’ routes, to transfer larger amounts of MDMA to the region. In fact, several seizures of synthetic drugs, including MDMA coming from Europe, have been reported in Chile, a country that has been used as a distribution hub for cocaine headed to Europe.
Limited evidence also suggests that, on occasion, barter deals may take place where MDMA is exchanged for cocaine with no financial transactions involved. For example, in 2020, an investigation in Brazil identified ongoing barter deals between criminals in the state of Santa Catarina and Europe involving the exchange of cocaine for MDMA. Criminal groups specialised in this trade appeared to be leading these deals, but other major Brazilian organised crime groups such as the PCC and the PGC (3) were reported to have also become involved in the trade (Ford, 2021b). Although barter deals have not yet been sufficiently documented, the potential importance of this modus operandi should not be underestimated. For instance, it is probable that heroin-for-MDMA barter deals between Turkish and Dutch criminal networks in the early to mid-2010s contributed to the development of the Turkish market for MDMA, which now appears to be one of the largest in Europe.
Trafficking of European MDMA base oil: an emerging trend?
While most MDMA is trafficked as a solid (powders, crystals and tablets), there are indications that MDMA base oil may at times be smuggled directly from the main EU production sites (such as the Netherlands and Belgium) to EU and non-EU destination countries (Sanen, 2021). Since MDMA oil is not a consumer product, it needs to be further processed at destination in order to obtain powders or crystals which can then be used as, or transformed into, consumer products. This appears to follow an established trend in the trafficking of amphetamine oil within Europe (see EU Drug Market: Amphetamine).
At present, the phenomenon does not appear to be significant, but this may be a reporting artefact. Nonetheless, both European law enforcement data and information reported to the WCO indicate that it is occurring. According to the WCO, between 2019 and 2022, MDMA oil exported from Europe was seized in New Zealand (over 33 litres), Israel (23 litres), the United States (7.5 litres), Australia (2 litres) and Colombia (1.5 litres). Most of the oil seized was sent in mail or express courier packages.
Transporting MDMA: parcel post and the land route predominate
Drug traffickers use a variety of methods to traffic MDMA from the European Union to both EU and non-EU destinations. Methods of MDMA trafficking within the European Union include parcel post, land transportation, air transportation and occasionally maritime routes. Diverse concealment methods are used to smuggle MDMA, tailored to exploit the specific features of each mode of transportation. These sophisticated concealment strategies evolve continually in order to evade detection by law enforcement.
Land transportation, mainly using cars, vans and lorries, is primarily associated with intra-European destinations, and is particularly relevant for the trafficking of MDMA to Türkiye. Caches are often built within the vehicle’s structure, integrated into the engine, spare wheel, dashboard, or in other hidden compartments. Alternatively, the drugs can be transported in the luggage of passengers on buses, trains and cars. Data reported to the WCO on MDMA seizures between 2019 and 2022 involving EU countries show that 56 % of the total quantity of MDMA seized between EU destinations was being transported by land. Although less commonly reported, land transportation allows the movement of larger quantities of MDMA compared with trafficking by mail or express couriers.
Air transportation appears to be less commonly used to smuggle MDMA within Europe, and is more relevant for the transportation of the drug overseas, via both cargo and passenger flights (NPNL, 2022). Air cargo is notably prevalent for destinations such as Australia, New Zealand and Japan. Passenger flights are used for a broader range of destinations, including Latin America. For air transportation, multifaceted concealment approaches are used. When trafficked via air cargo, MDMA is often concealed within commodities, such as construction material and other goods, in order to minimise the risk of detection. On passenger flights, MDMA can be placed inside the double lining of baggage, in hidden compartments, or carried attached to or inside a passenger’s body. Trafficking by drug couriers on passenger flights is usually of smaller quantities in comparison to other methods.
Maritime cargo is also used, particularly for overseas markets (such as Latin America) and when shipping larger quantities of MDMA (see Section MDMA trafficked from the European Union to Latin America: the reverse cocaine route?). Concealment methods are similar to those used in air cargo flights (NPNL, 2022). The concealment techniques used for maritime trafficking of MDMA may also be adapted to the vessel structure.
Use of post and parcel delivery services
Criminal networks often exploit post and parcel delivery services to traffic smaller quantities of MDMA to retail-level distributors or directly to consumers both inside and outside the European Union. Such parcels are frequently associated with the online drugs trade. At times, in addition to retail-level distribution, mail and parcel services may also become a means of trafficking larger quantities of MDMA (amounting to several kilograms). For example, in December 2021, a drug trafficking network was dismantled in the Netherlands after attempting to ship MDMA tablets to Vietnam and Laos using parcel shipment services. The suspects tried to smuggle 47 000 ecstasy tablets to Vietnam and 14.2 kilograms of MDMA to Laos (NOS, 2021; Politie, 2021). Due to the quantities concerned, it is likely that this form of trafficking is intended for further distribution, for example by wholesalers.
There are strong indications that criminal networks from Asia use post and parcel services to traffic large quantities of MDMA purchased from drug-producing networks in the Netherlands. The drugs appear to be packaged by their criminal associates based in the Netherlands into parcels containing between 5 and 10 kilograms of MDMA, disguised as legitimate goods. In order to mask the origin of the parcels and minimise the risk of detection, the members of these networks use mail or express couriers to first smuggle the parcels to countries such as Belgium, France and Germany, after which they are shipped to Asia (NPNL, 2022).
MDMA: online trade and distribution on darknet markets
MDMA is frequently traded online across a range of platforms, including darknet markets as well as surface web and social media platforms. Recently, social media platforms and instant messaging applications have become particularly dynamic channels through which MDMA is sold to consumers. The growing exploitation of these platforms is likely tied to the objective of reaching a wider population of consumers. Smaller quantities sold online are often dispatched in post and parcels from EU countries to consumer markets in Europe and globally, and cryptocurrencies are often used to settle these online transactions.
MDMA darknet markets
In addition to facilitating direct sales to consumers, MDMA produced in the European Union appears to be sold on darknet markets in wholesale and mid-level distribution quantities. These larger quantities are sold in kilograms and are purchased by criminal networks based both inside and outside the European Union. Contrary to what tends to happen for other drug markets, mid-level sales represent a relatively large proportion of all darknet MDMA sales, and the value of the mid-level sales is greater than the value of the retail sales (EMCDDA, 2017).
An EUDA analysis of 18 darknet markets conducted in 2022 (4) detected a total of 8 849 unique listings (sale offers) for MDMA in tablet (5 153, 58 %) and powder/crystal (3 696, 42 %) forms, purporting to ship from an EU country. The analysis did not include MDMA oil. Although caution should be exercised when interpreting these data, the number of listings provides a useful indicator of the scale of activity on darknet markets.
Listings of ecstasy tablets
The available data suggest that the majority of ecstasy tablet listings offered on darknet markets during 2022 originated in Germany (44 %), the Netherlands (36 %) and France (10 %). A further 6 % of tablet listings offered shipping from various other EU countries, Norway and Türkiye, and 4 % offered shipping from an unspecified country in Europe (see Figure 5.5. Proportion of ecstasy tablet and powder/crystal MDMA listings on major darknet markets by EU Member States, Norway and Türkiye, 2022).
Based on a subsample of 4 870 (94.5 %) listings of ecstasy tablets in 2022, where all required data were available, the vast majority (4 310, 89 %) of listings claimed to ship tablets with a very high MDMA content – between 201 and 300 milligrams per tablet. It should be noted, however, that these claims have not been verified by forensic testing.
Darknet sellers advertise ecstasy tablets in retail and wholesale amounts. Across the 4 870 listings of ecstasy tablets in 2022, the most frequently offered number of tablets in a single listing was 10 tablets (756 listings), followed by 1 (728) and 100 tablets (493). Around 10 % (503) of the listings of ecstasy tablets offered wholesale amounts (1 000 tablets or more). The most common wholesale amount on offer was 1 000 tablets (6.8 % of all listings), but a number of other listings offered quantities of several thousand tablets, up to 10 000 (14 listings).
Proportion of ecstasy tablet listings on major darknet markets by EU Member States, Norway and Türkiye, 2022
Proportion of powder/crystal MDMA listings on major darknet markets by EU Member States, Norway and Türkiye, 2022
Darknet listings of powder/crystal MDMA
MDMA powders and crystal are also on offer on the darknet, with the vast majority on offer referring to crystal MDMA, rather than powders. Similar to listings for ecstasy tablets, the Netherlands (43 %), Germany (38 %) and France (10 %) dominated as the reported shipping countries for powder/crystal MDMA listings. A broad range of other European countries featured as the shipping origin in 6 % of the listings; and an additional 3 % of listings purported to ship from an unspecified country in Europe (see Figure Proportion of ecstasy tablet and powder/crystal MDMA listings on major darknet markets by EU Member States, Norway and Türkiye, 2022).
Based on a subsample of powder/crystal listings (3 480, 94 %), where all required data were available, the most commonly offered quantity of MDMA was 5 grams (453, 13 %), followed by 10 grams (389, 11 %) and 50 grams (308, 8.9 %). Around 7 % (257) of the listings of powder/crystal MDMA were for wholesale amounts (1 kilogram or more). The most common wholesale amount was 1 kilogram (183; 5.26 % of all listings), but a listing offering quantities up to 50 kilograms was also identified.
Prices of MDMA on the darknet
Price data were available for 1 312 ecstasy tablet listings and 977 MDMA powder/crystal listings. The typical price per tablet and per gram, at different market levels, is shown in the tables 'Breakdown of listings by market level'. Overall, retail prices on the darknet appear to be cheaper than on the physical retail market, particularly for tablets. For example, a tablet containing 144 milligrams of MDMA would typically cost EUR 1.44 on the darknet, whereas offline prices vary between EUR 4 and EUR 19 (see Section Price). However, it should be noted that darknet data are not accompanied by forensic verification and therefore tablet content and strength are not confirmed, making these values a signal or indication, rather than a quantitative comparison.
Table 5.1. Breakdown of listings by market level and price per gram of MDMA in tablets
| Market level | Number of listings | Typical price per gram (EUR) |
|---|---|---|
| Retail (<50 tablets) | 712 | 10 |
| Middle (50-999 tablets) | 468 | 5.7 |
| Wholesale (>1 000 tablets) | 132 | 4.3 |
Note: For tablets, price per gram was calculated based on MDMA amount per tablet in each listing, as claimed by the darknet seller.
Table 5.2. Breakdown of listings by market level and price per gram of MDMA in crystal
| Market level | Number of listings | Typical price per gram (EUR) |
|---|---|---|
| Retail (<50 grams) | 611 | 10 |
| Middle (50-999 grams) | 313 | 6 |
| Wholesale (>1 000 grams) | 53 | 7 |
Note: For tablets, price per gram was calculated based on MDMA amount per tablet in each listing, as claimed by the darknet seller.
Criminal networks
The MDMA market presents numerous financial opportunities for criminal networks involved in different parts of the supply chain. Criminal networks are involved in sourcing chemicals, equipment and locations needed for MDMA production, disposing of evidence and waste related to the production, smuggling the substance, getting it to the consumer and handling payments and finances. Adaptability is evident throughout the chain. For example, designer precursors are used to avoid scheduled substances, new smuggling methods are developed, new trafficking routes explored and new digital technologies are introduced to sell MDMA on consumer markets, among several other innovations.
Dutch criminal networks remain the leading large-scale producers of MDMA in the European Union (Europol, 2021), operating production facilities outside the Netherlands as well. For example, they also control MDMA production in Belgium, through Belgian subsidiaries. These Dutch criminals also cooperate with networks of distributors to traffic MDMA to consumer markets in Europe and globally. Nonetheless, while MDMA production appears to be firmly controlled by Dutch networks, a broad range of criminals are involved in MDMA trafficking in Europe, some of whom originate from non-EU countries. For instance, criminal networks from the Western Balkan region engage in MDMA trafficking in some EU Member States, although they predominantly remain involved in the trafficking of cocaine and heroin. Asian criminal networks active in the European Union are also known to be involved in the trafficking of MDMA from the Netherlands to consumer markets in Asia (NPNL, 2022).
Crime-as-a-service
As with other illicit drugs, specialisation and division of labour are observed in the MDMA market. Criminal networks increasingly rely on specialist service providers at different stages of the MDMA production and trafficking chain. Some of these criminal service providers specialise in the procurement of chemicals and equipment (or its customisation) used in the production process, but also in tabletting, the identification and establishment of production sites, and money laundering.
Large-scale MDMA production, for example, is characterised by a high degree of specialisation among collaborating criminal networks, whereby certain stages of the production process are outsourced to dedicated criminal service providers. This often involves a high number of criminal networks that cooperate in order to optimise resources and increase profits. Some criminals are, for example, specialised in the importation, storage and supply of precursors, designer precursors, essential chemicals and catalysts to MDMA producers in the Netherlands and Belgium.
Equipment suppliers provide MDMA producers with a range of materials, such as custom-built or modified reaction vessels, other hardware, glassware, heating mantels and heating blankets as well as tabletting machines. This equipment is sourced both within and outside the European Union, with the exception of tabletting machines which appear to be predominantly imported from China (NPNL, 2022). It appears that drug producers also contract individuals and companies specialised in metal construction to build custom-made vessels or modify those intended for use within legal industries (see Section Production).
Specialists are also contracted for tabletting MDMA into ecstasy. These specialists may provide ready-made mixtures of adulterants, excipients and fillers used in the tabletting process, in addition to operating the machines. They are reported to take into account the desired potency, shape and logo of the ecstasy tablets and paid a fee per tablet produced (NPNL, 2022).
Brokers play an important role in connecting drug producers with specialised criminal service providers. On occasion, they are also responsible for finding suitable locations for drug production, by approaching owners of farms, warehouses and sheds. In some cases, the owners of such sites are complicit in the illicit activities conducted at their properties, and may also support the acquisition of furniture and materials needed for drug production.
(1) Through the CEN platform, the World Customs Organization (WCO) collects data on the location of seizures, departure points, destination countries, as well as the quantities seized, modes of transportation, and concealment techniques used by traffickers. These data are submitted on a voluntary basis by the WCO Member States and therefore the data may not reflect the totality of seizures made in the reporting countries nor in any of them individually, rather a proportion of it.
(2) In this context, a departure point may be the country where the drug is produced or a transit point along an extended trafficking route. Similarly, a destination country may be the final destination of the drugs seized or simply a transit point along the trafficking route.
(3) PCC – Primeiro Comando da Capital, a Brazilian organised crime group originally from São Paulo. PGC – Primeiro Grupo Catarinense, an organised crime group established in the state of Santa Catarina in Brazil.
(4) Darknet markets analysed: Abacus, Alphabay-v3, Archetyp, Ares, ASAP, Bohemia, Cocorico, Cypher, Darkfox, Hermes, Kingdom, Nemesis, Revolution, Royal, Tor2door, Tor-market, Versus and Vice City.
References
Consult the list of references used in this module.
Source data
The data used to generate the infographics and charts on this page may be found below (CSV format). Additional information, metadata and methodological notes may be found in the EU Drug Market: MDMA source data entry in our data catalogue.