Cocaine – the current situation in Europe (European Drug Report 2025)

Cocaine is, after cannabis, the second most commonly used illicit drug in Europe, although prevalence levels and patterns of use differ considerably between countries. On this page, you can find the latest analysis of the drug situation for cocaine in Europe, including prevalence of use, treatment demand, seizures, price and purity, harms and more.

This page is part of the European Drug Report 2025, the EUDA’s annual overview of the drug situation in Europe.

Table of contents/Search

Table of contents/Search

Search within the book

Operator

Any match

Exact term match only

Select any filter and click on Search to see results

Close

Last update: 5 June 2025

Unprecedented cocaine availability driving health and social harms

Cocaine is, after cannabis, the second most commonly used illicit drug in Europe. Although prevalence levels and patterns of use differ considerably between countries (see Prevalence and patterns of cocaine use), the availability of this drug continues to increase. Equally, concern has been growing that the health and social costs associated with this drug are rising significantly. 

Cocaine is usually available in two forms in Europe. The most common is cocaine powder (the salt form) and less commonly available is crack cocaine (a smokable freebase form). Cocaine is produced from the coca plant, grown in South America. It enters Europe through various routes, but bulk cocaine trafficking through Europe’s seaports in intermodal commercial shipping containers fuels the high availability of the drug. In countries with large container ports exploited by cocaine traffickers, high levels of drug-related crime, including the corruption of staff along supply chains, intimidation and violence, have been documented. Competition within the cocaine market, both at the wholesale and retail levels, is an important driver of drug-related crime, including gang-related violence and homicides in some countries. At the same time, cocaine use, and crack cocaine use in particular, appears to be becoming more common, especially among some marginalised communities. Overall, the growing availability and use of cocaine in Europe is resulting in greater costs to society, both through its impact on public health and the crime and violence associated with the cocaine market.

Trafficking networks use multiple methods to increase Europe’s cocaine supply

In 2023, for the seventh year in a row, EU Member States reported a record amount of cocaine seized, amounting to 419 tonnes. Belgium, Spain and the Netherlands remain the countries reporting the highest volumes of seizures, reflecting their importance as entry points for cocaine trafficked to Europe. An increase in the number of seizures of smaller loads has been observed, likely reflecting a change in trafficking tactics. In 2024, Spain reported its largest ever seizure of cocaine (13 tonnes) in a single shipment, concealed in bananas originating from the port of Guayaquil, Ecuador. In recent years, some other countries also appear to have increased in importance as entry points for cocaine to Europe. These include Portugal, which has seized increasing quantities since 2021, reporting almost 22 tonnes of cocaine in 2023. Germany seized 43 tonnes of cocaine in 2023 as large consignments totalling 25 tonnes were seized in the Port of Hamburg that year, double the quantity reported in 2022 (Figure 3.1).

Note: Seizure by Baden-Württemberg State Criminal Police.

The trafficking of illicit drugs is highly dynamic and quick to adapt to geopolitical developments, regional conflicts and changes in commercial trade routes. In this context, developments in Colombia, Brazil and Ecuador are all thought to have contributed to the increase observed in cocaine trafficked to the European Union by organised crime groups (see the European Drug Market Report: Cocaine for an in-depth analysis). Cocaine cultivation and production increased in Colombia in 2023, driven by various security and economic issues. In addition to the use of commercial containers, a range of other methods are used, often in combination, to evade detection (see Figure 3.2). For example, in September 2023, Ireland seized 2.25 tonnes of cocaine from a cargo ship off its southern coast.

As interdiction measures have been scaled up at major known entry points for the drug, cocaine traffickers are also targeting smaller ports in other EU Member States and neighbouring countries, which may be more vulnerable to drug trafficking activities. For example, in one of Sweden’s largest ever drug seizures, about 1.4 tonnes of cocaine was confiscated in the small port of Nynäshamn, south of Stockholm, in April 2024.

It is well-established that the illicit processing of cocaine products takes place in several EU Member States, with multiple cocaine laboratories reported to have been dismantled each year. Cocaine processing in Europe often involves the secondary extraction of cocaine that has been incorporated into other materials (e.g. chemically concealed in plastics), creating challenges for its detection in commercial shipments. Cocaine base and paste are trafficked in large quantities to Europe for processing into cocaine hydrochloride. Some relatively large-scale facilities involved in cocaine processing are detected each year. For example, 6 cocaine-processing laboratories were dismantled in Portugal between 2023 and 2024, leading to the seizure of cocaine paste and cocaine hydrochloride.

Cocaine’s public health impact more evident

For a number of practical and methodological reasons, cocaine-related health problems can be challenging to monitor, but there are increasing signals that the high availability of this drug is having a growing negative impact on public health in Europe. Cocaine is the second most frequently reported illicit drug by first-time entrants to specialist drug treatment, and it is now the most frequently reported substance in acute drug-toxicity presentations to sentinel hospital emergency departments. European drug checking services, although not nationally representative, reported that cocaine was the second most common substance they screened in the first half of 2024. The available 2023 data suggest that cocaine was involved in about a quarter of drug overdose deaths. As cocaine use can aggravate underlying cardiovascular problems, its overall contribution to mortality in Europe is likely to be underestimated.

Cocaine residues in municipal wastewater also increased in over half of the cities with data for 2024 and 2023. Alongside other information, this suggests that as cocaine has become increasingly available, so too has its geographical and social distribution. Of particular concern is the use of cocaine among more marginalised groups in some countries. Both the smoking and injection of cocaine are associated with greater health problems, and it is therefore worrying that cocaine injection and the use of crack cocaine are reported in a growing number of countries. Stimulants such as cocaine are associated with a higher frequency of injection and have been involved in localised HIV outbreaks among people who inject drugs in 7 European cities over the last decade (see Injecting drug use in Europe – the current situation).

The use of cocaine is associated with a number of adverse health consequences, which can include agitation, psychosis, tachycardia, hypertension, arrhythmia, chest pain and stroke. Most of the chronic harms related to the use of cocaine are associated with intensive, high-dose or long-term consumption which, in addition to dependence, can increase the risk of coronary artery disease, cardiomyopathy and stroke. Cocaine and synthetic stimulants may also induce or precipitate psychotic states, such as stimulant-induced psychosis. The management of psychiatric comorbidity among people with drug use problems remains challenging, as integrated treatment and mental health service responses are often lacking. Regular and problematic cocaine use is also associated with increased risk of mortality from suicide, accidental injury, homicide and AIDS. The combined use of cocaine and alcohol is common, and the presence of the two substances in the body is associated with greater health risks.

Treating people with problems associated with their cocaine use is challenging, whether they are more socially integrated and involved in casual or episodic use of powder cocaine, or more marginalised groups injecting the drug or smoking crack cocaine. Most of the chronic harms related to the use of stimulants such as cocaine are associated with intensive, high-dose or long-term consumption. Acute problems can also affect people who use stimulants experimentally, but they are likely to be less common when the stimulant use is infrequent and low-dose.

Although our understanding of what constitutes effective treatment for stimulant problems is growing, it remains relatively limited. The current evidence available is indicative of the use of psychosocial interventions, including cognitive behavioural therapy and contingency management. Currently, there is insufficient evidence to strongly support any pharmacological treatment, although some potentially useful new pharmacotherapies are in development. Treating cocaine problems among more marginalised groups can be particularly challenging, as clients may also be experiencing problems with a range of other drugs, including opioids or alcohol, potentially compounded by socio-economic deprivation, including unstable accommodation. For injecting cocaine and smoking crack, existing harm reduction responses, to a large extent, those originally developed for opioid problems, are likely to be appropriate to reduce route-specific harms. However, further work is needed to develop more comprehensive interventions, and greater investment is needed to ensure services are appropriate to the growing needs observed in this area in some countries.

Key data and trends

Prevalence and patterns of cocaine use

• In the European Union, surveys indicate that almost 2.7 million 15- to 34-year-olds (2.7 % of this age group) used cocaine in the last year (see Figure 3.3). Of the 15 European countries that have conducted surveys since 2022 and provided confidence intervals, 6 reported higher estimates than their previous comparable survey and 8 reported a stable trend.

• In the 2024 ESPAD school survey, cocaine was rated as easily obtainable by around 13 % of the 15- to 16-year-old ESPAD students in the European Union. On average, 2 % of the students reported having used cocaine at least once in their lifetime, with less than 1 % reporting having used cocaine for the first time at age 13 or younger.
• Cocaine residues in municipal wastewater increased in 39 out of 72 cities with data for both 2024 and 2023, while 17 cities reported no change and 16 cities reported a decrease (see Figure 3.4).

• In the 2024 European Web Survey on Drugs, a non-representative survey of people who use drugs, 29 % of respondents living in the European Union or Norway reported having used cocaine powder, crack cocaine or both in the last 12 months. Polysubstance use was the norm among those using cocaine powder, with only 4 % indicating having used it with no other substance, including tobacco and alcohol, in the last episode of use. This was the highest reported rate of polysubstance use among all drugs. Participants reported consuming cocaine powder mostly at a club or bar (68 %), at a music festival or party (62 %), or at home (64 %). Regarding the use of crack cocaine, home was the most reported setting (86 %).
• Analysis of 3276 used syringes by the ESCAPE network of 19 cities in 13 EU Member States and Norway in 2023 found cocaine in more than 50 % of syringes in 6 out of 19 cities (Dublin, 90 %; Barcelona, 89 %; Thessaloniki, 73 %; Riga, 64 %; Cologne, 62 %; Madrid, 56 %).

Treatment entry for cocaine use

• Cocaine was the second most common problem drug among people entering specialist drug treatment for the first time in 2023, cited by an estimated 35 000 clients or 24 % of all first-time entrants (see Figure 3.5).
• The number of clients entering treatment for cocaine-related problems for the first time increased by 31 % between 2018 and 2023.
• The latest European data reveal a time lag of 13 years between first cocaine use, on average at the age of 22, and first treatment for cocaine-related problems, on average at the age of 35. For people using cocaine powder, the lag is 14 years (Figure 3.5).
• Over 80 % of those entering treatment for the first time who cited cocaine as their main problem drug report powder cocaine as the main form of the drug they used. In 2023, the majority (84 %) of clients were men, a quarter reported daily cocaine use in the last month and four fifths mainly sniffed the drug.
• Based on data from 24 countries that report historical data, injecting was reported as the main route of administration by less than 1.5 % of first-time cocaine clients in 2023.

Crack cocaine

• Just 5 EU Member States accounted for 80 % of the estimated 9900 crack-related treatment entries in 2023 (8100 in 2022), of which 3700 were first-time entrants (Figure 3.5). A caveat here is that the term ‘crack’ may not be used consistently by all countries.
• The number of first-time treatment entrants with crack cocaine as primary drug increased by 35 %, from 2700 clients in 2018 to 3700 clients in 2023.
• Over a fifth of those who enter treatment for crack cocaine are women (22 % in 2023), 95 % report smoking as the main route of administration, and 42 % have used the drug daily in the last month before entering the treatment.
• In 2023, drug consumption rooms in 10 cities in 8 EU Member States reported crack cocaine use by clients, either alone or with heroin. More than three quarters (79 %) of consumption episodes related to crack cocaine involved smoking. Crack cocaine alone was injected in 21 % of consumption episodes and in combination with heroin in 47 % of episodes. Drug consumption rooms may differ as to whether they permit illicit drugs to be injected, smoked, or both.

Harms related to cocaine use

• Cocaine was the most common substance reported by Euro-DEN Plus sentinel hospitals in 2023, mentioned in 25 % (1695) of acute drug-toxicity presentations. Where recorded, around half of the presentations were associated with co-ingestion of alcohol.
• The majority of Euro-DEN Plus sentinel hospitals received more presentations with cocaine involved in 2023 compared to 2022 (Figure 3.6).

• Among the 20 European countries providing data for both years, cocaine was involved in approximately one quarter (1051 or 26 %) of the drug-induced deaths in 2023 (956 or 27 % in 2022).
• In Spain, cocaine was involved in 60 % (621/1037) of the drug-induced deaths reported in 2022. Evidence of polysubstance use was common in cocaine-related deaths, with opioids present in most cases, alcohol in more than a third (38 %) and benzodiazepines in more than half (56 %) (Figure 3.7).

• France’s Oscour network of emergency departments reported an increase of 17 % in cocaine-related cases in 2023, from 21.2/100 000 visits in 2022 to 28.8 per 100 000 visits in 2023.

Cocaine market data

• In 2023, EU Member States reported 95 000 cocaine seizures, amounting to 419 tonnes (up from 323 tonnes in 2022); a record amount for the seventh year in a row. Belgium (123 tonnes), the Netherlands (59 tonnes; incomplete data) and Spain (118 tonnes) together accounted for 72 % of the total quantity seized (Figure 3.8). Among the other countries reporting cocaine seizures, Germany (43 tonnes), France (23 tonnes), Portugal (22 tonnes), Ireland (3.2 tonnes; incomplete data), Norway (2.3 tonnes), Sweden (1.5 tonnes) and Lithuania (1.4 tonnes) seized record quantities in 2023.
• The average purity of cocaine at the retail level ranged from 17 % to 96 % across Europe in 2023, with half of the countries reporting an average purity of between 66 % and 81 %. While the price of cocaine at retail level has remained relatively stable over the past decade, cocaine purity has been on an upward trend, and in 2023 reached a level 34 % higher than the index year of 2013 (Figure 3.8).

• In 2023, EU Member States reported dismantling at least 34 sites related to cocaine production (39 in 2022), representing an indicative estimate. A considerably higher quantity of the essential chemical potassium permanganate was seized in 2023 (2082 kilograms) compared with 2022 (173 kilograms).
• In 2023, cocaine was cited in 97 000 use or possession offences, about 9 % of all such offences for which the drug is known, continuing the upward trend observed over the previous 7 years. After cannabis, cocaine was the second most frequently cited drug in offences related to use or possession.
• Among 11 drug checking services across 10 EU Member States, cocaine emerged as the substance most commonly detected by 3 services during the first half of 2024, the same as during the first half of 2023. Over the same period, the purity of cocaine samples analysed by 7 drug checking services in 6 EU Member States remained high. In the first half of 2023, over 55 % of the samples tested exhibited a purity of 80 % or above. In the first half of 2024, this equivalent share was 46 %.

Detailed information on cocaine can be found in the joint EUDA-Europol EU Drug Market: Cocaine and the EUDA’s Stimulants: health and social responses.
 

Source data

The complete set of source data for the European Drug Report 2025, including metadata and methodological notes, is available in our data catalogue.

A subset of this data, used to generate infographics, charts and similar elements on this page, may be found below.

Prevalence of drug use data tables including general population surveys and wastewater analysis (all substances)

Other data tables including tables specific to cocaine