Europe’s emergence as a globally important producer of methamphetamine

Seizures: long-term trend points to creeping market expansion

From 2010 to 2020, the number of methamphetamine seizures reported in the EU increased by almost 107 % and the quantities seized increased by 477 % (¹) (see Figures Number and quantity of methamphetamine seizures). In 2019, EU Member States reported 6 500 seizures of methamphetamine amounting to 3.5 tonnes, up from 0.5 tonnes in 2018. In 2020, there was a reduction of both individual seizures (totalling 6 200) and the overall quantity seized (2.2 tonnes). Interpreting seizure data is complicated by the various sources of methamphetamine that exist, including production in Europe (mainly Czechia or Belgium and the Netherlands) and importation from abroad. In addition, the collection of seizure data for most drugs was disrupted in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Among the EU Member States seizing methamphetamine in 2020, Slovakia reported the largest amount (including a seizure of 1.5 tonnes originating in Mexico) (EMCDDA, 2021a; see Box Operation PONTON), followed by Poland (300 kilograms), Lithuania (90 kilograms), Spain (78 kilograms) and Italy (44 kilograms). Recent seizures also suggest that European countries, particularly Spain, may be used as onward distribution points for methamphetamine produced in Mexico, likely for transport to Asia and Oceania, potentially via other EU Member States.

Standardised data on methamphetamine seizures in the Netherlands are not available, however, Dutch law enforcement reported to Europol seizures of 90 kilograms in 2020 and 650 kilograms in 2021 (not linked to production), as well as 8 200 kilograms/litres in 2020 and 3 300 kilograms/litres in 2021 seized at illicit production laboratories. In addition, partial information is available from reports of dismantled laboratories and from open sources. For example, in 2019, over 2.5 tonnes of crystal methamphetamine was found in a storage site in Rotterdam (Associated Press, 2019), in 2020 a quantity estimated at ‘hundreds of kilograms’ was confiscated after a laboratory was dismantled in Westdorpe (NOS, 2020), and in 2021, at Eemnes, 2.5 tonnes of methamphetamine was recovered when an active laboratory was dismantled (see Box Illicit laboratory inventory highlights Mexican and Dutch capabilities for methamphetamine production and highlights dangers).

Meanwhile, Turkey witnessed a significant increase in the amount of methamphetamine seized in 2020, reaching almost 4.2 tonnes (up from a little over 1 tonne in 2019). Most methamphetamine seized in Turkey enters the east of the country via the Iranian border, where smuggling of the drug in liquid form has been noted (Turkish National Focal Point, 2021).

Dutch and Mexican collaboration: sharing expertise drives production to industrial scale

The production of methamphetamine in the Netherlands appears to have increased sharply in recent years, with the number of large-scale production facilities dismantled rising from 5 in 2017 to 32 in 2020, according to the Dutch police (see Figure Methamphetamine laboratories dismantled in the Netherlands).

There is evidence indicating that Dutch criminal networks are switching to the production of methamphetamine because profits are higher than for amphetamine and MDMA. For example, the wholesale price per kilogram of amphetamine paste and MDMA was EUR 740 and EUR 1 350, respectively in 2019, while methamphetamine commanded EUR 12 700 per kilogram (Politie, 2021a), although this price dropped significantly in 2020 (to approximately EUR 7 675 per kilogram) (Politie, 2021b).

While mostly Dutch nationals are encountered in the illicit drug laboratories dismantled in the Netherlands, in the methamphetamine facilities, Mexican and other Latin American ‘cooks’ (people who make synthetic drugs in illicit laboratories) have also been arrested since 2019. The Dutch police reported to the EMCDDA that Mexicans or other Latin Americans were arrested in connection with three methamphetamine production laboratories in 2019, while Mexican involvement is suspected in two other cases that year. In several such laboratories, the production methods are very specific and, according to Dutch law enforcement, the imported methods present new hazards compared with the other illicit synthetic drug laboratories dismantled in the Netherlands (see Main production methods used in Europe). In 2020, Mexican and other Latin American cooks were reported to be involved in nine dismantled illicit methamphetamine production facilities. Other Latin American nationals arrested in connection with methamphetamine production in the Netherlands include Colombians and Dominicans (Aalbers, 2020; Cerberus, 2019; Meuleman, 2020; Voskuil, 2019; see video by Politie Landelijke Eenheid).

In June 2019, Belgian federal police confirmed that three Mexicans and a Colombian national were arrested in connection with the country’s first-ever crystal methamphetamine production facility in Wuustwezel, a town close to the Dutch border (Braal and Verheijen, 2019).

The Dutch-Mexican partnerships are reported to be mutually profitable. The Dutch ensure, under the guidance of the Mexicans, that a suitable production facility is set up, with adequate supplies of drug precursors and other chemicals, hardware and waste disposal, while the Mexicans supply the cooks. The end product is then either shared between the Dutch and Mexican criminal networks or the Mexicans are paid per kilogram of end product. In addition, Dutch and Mexican criminal networks are reported to be collaborating in order to establish methamphetamine smuggling routes from Mexico to Europe. In such cases, methamphetamine made in Mexico is trafficked to European ports, from where it may be moved overland before being distributed to destinations in Asia and Oceania, with some potentially being kept for an expanding European market (see Box Operation PONTON).

In addition to the implications described above (impact on production methods and importation of methamphetamine into the EU), the collaboration may be concerning from other perspectives. Mexican synthetic drug producers are focused on methamphetamine and fentanyl for the US market. Any signals in this direction in Europe must be carefully monitored, and indeed some have already been noted (see Box Signals of fentanyl production detected in the Netherlands and Belgium). Despite these recent developments, there is no indication that Mexican cartels are setting up a base in the EU with the intention of competing for control of drug markets.

Other signals of the involvement of Mexican groups in European methamphetamine trade

Additional insight into Mexican involvement in methamphetamine production and trafficking in Europe can be gained from the seizures in Europe. In 2019, Spain reported seizing 1.6 tonnes originating in Mexico (see Box Mexican Beltrán Leyva cartel caught trafficking methamphetamine to Europe), and in 2020 Slovakia reported seizing 1.5 tonnes originating in Mexico (see Box Operation PONTON). Such cases suggest that European countries may be used as onward distribution points for methamphetamine produced in Mexico.

Analysis of darknet markets also provides evidence of connections to Mexican methamphetamine in Europe. Such connections are typically captured in the drug listing, and this can be a direct claim of a link describing Mexican methamphetamine or quality comparisons. References to Mexican methamphetamine began to appear in the second half of 2017 and were evident across a number of darknet markets, though particularly prominent on Dream, the dominant market at that time, which hosted about two thirds (525) of all listings where a link could be identified (813). In 2017, the number of links was limited (5); however, there was proliferation in 2018 when around 50 % (564 listings) of all methamphetamine listings in that year (1 146) could be linked to Mexican production in some way. Over 90 % of these listings appeared to belong to 10 vendors operating on Dream market purporting to ship from Germany. The activity in 2019 was greatly reduced (24), probably due to disruption of the darknet market ecosystem, including the shutdown of Dream in April 2019. It remained relatively low in 2020 at just over 100 relevant listings, but 110 listings pointing to links were identified in the first six months of 2021.

Methamphetamine from Afghanistan: a credible threat?

An important development has been noted in Afghanistan, where since around 2016 methamphetamine production has been increasing, initially as a result of the relocation of some Iranian producers to Afghan territory, perhaps driven by a lack of access to precursors. In Afghanistan, the method used was initially based on the extraction of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine from medicines. However, since 2019, a new method has emerged, with producers using ephedrine extracted from ephedra plants that grow wild in mountainous regions of the country (Mansfield and Soderholm, 2019). The rapid development of the production of what appears to be a comparatively cheap form of pure methamphetamine in Afghanistan is a cause for concern, particularly as the country is the origin of most of the heroin on the European market. As such, there is a risk that the drug could enter the European drug market via existing trafficking routes for heroin (EMCDDA, 2020).

Since 2019, record amounts of methamphetamine believed to be of Afghan origin have been seized along the Balkan and southern trafficking routes for heroin. This includes a large number of seizures made in Iran and Pakistan. Also, seizures have been made as far away as Sri Lanka, Indonesia and Australia. In Australia, chemical profiling of several seizures has confirmed that the methamphetamine was produced from ephedrine obtained from plants (which may suggest they originated from Afghanistan or perhaps China). Of concern for Europe, Turkey has seen a large increase in the quantity of methamphetamine seized in recent years, exceeding 4 tonnes in 2020 (up from 1 tonne in 2019). These seizures often involve Iranian nationals operating on the Balkan trafficking route, take place in the Turkish provinces bordering Iran, and sometimes also include heroin. In one incident in December 2021, a seizure of 462.5 kilograms of liquid methamphetamine was made at the Gürbulak border crossing with Iran (personal communication, Turkish National Focal Point, 2021).

It is unknown whether any of the methamphetamine seized in Turkey was destined for the European market, and without forensic confirmation, the origin remains undetermined. There is, however, a risk that Afghan methamphetamine may in the future be trafficked to the EU using the Balkan and southern routes. Notably, large methamphetamine and heroin seizures have also been reported along the southern route, particularly in operations undertaken by the Combined Maritime Force (CMF) around the Arabian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. By the beginning of December 2021, the CMF had already seized more methamphetamine in these areas (4 052 kilograms) than in any previous year (CMF, 2021).

The developments in Afghan methamphetamine production are particularly threatening for the EU given the transnational nature of the Afghan drugs trade and its potential impact on transit and destination countries (EMCDDA, 2021b). Should traffickers along the Balkan and southern routes seek to move Afghan methamphetamine into Europe, either for consumption or in transit to other global markets, this may lead to tensions or collaboration with European drug producers and distribution networks. As Europe’s methamphetamine market is small and dynamic, a potential supply-side push caused by comparatively cheap Afghan methamphetamine may result in increased availability and use of the drug (see Box Crystal methanomics’: why would importing from Afghanistan make sense?).

(1) It should be noted that these figures do not show the full picture, since seizure data were not reported to the EMCDDA by the Netherlands.

References

Consult the list of references used in this resource.

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